The steady development of Anatolia during the Roman period faced serious challenges, but for a long time these were not enough to bring it to an end. Two great plagues, one in 165 CE and another in 251 CE, each killed nearly one third of the population. These epidemics caused immense suffering and loss of life. However, despite their scale, they did not completely interrupt economic activity or urban life. Cities continued to function, and trade and agriculture slowly recovered after each disaster.
Invasions and Recovery
In the middle of the third century CE, Anatolia was attacked by the Goths. These invasions caused destruction in some regions, but the damage was relatively limited. The cities and countryside recovered quickly, and the overall structure of Roman administration remained intact Peace and Stability in the Roman Empire.
This recovery was supported by the Roman state, which still had strong institutions and resources. Even when Anatolia was weakened, Roman emperors adapted by recruiting soldiers from beyond the Danube, including so-called “barbarian” groups, to maintain their armies. As a result, the Roman system survived these early shocks.
Sassanian and Arab Raids
The situation changed dramatically in the early seventh century. The raids of the Sassanian Persians marked the beginning of a far more destructive period. The Sassanian occupation lasted for roughly the first quarter of the seventh century and caused severe damage to cities, infrastructure, and farmland.
Before Anatolia had time to recover from this devastation, a new and even more serious threat appeared. Arab raids, beginning in the seventh century and continuing into the eighth century, had long-lasting and disastrous effects. These attacks were frequent and widespread, leaving both urban and rural areas in ruin.
Collapse of Urban Life
As a result of these repeated invasions, cities and countryside were depopulated. Many people abandoned their homes and migrated to safer regions. Large areas of land were left uncultivated, leading to food shortages and economic decline. Artisans and craftsmen could no longer sell their goods, as trade networks collapsed and markets disappeared Turkey Private Tours.
Archaeological evidence reflects this decline clearly. Excavations show a scarcity of coins and very little high-quality pottery from this period. Instead of grand public buildings, the remains reveal small, hastily built fortresses, constructed on or near the ruins of ancient cities. These structures were designed for defense rather than comfort or civic life.
The End of a Golden Age
Although a few cities managed to recover temporarily, the golden age of Late Roman and Early Byzantine Anatolia was over. The region entered a long period of instability that historians often compare to the Dark Ages. Economic activity remained limited, urban life diminished, and cultural production declined.
From Byzantines to Ottomans
In the centuries that followed, Anatolia became a battleground between the Byzantine Empire and various Turkish emirates. Control of the region shifted frequently, and political uncertainty continued. For a brief period, Anatolia even came under the rule of Timur (Tamerlane).
Finally, at the beginning of the fifteenth century, the Ottomans incorporated Anatolia into their growing empire. This marked the end of the long era of upheaval and the beginning of a new historical chapter for the region.
